1 The Neuron

Neurons are the basic units of the brain. Their main function is to send electrical signals over short and long distances in the body, and they are electrically and chemically excitable. The function of the neuron is dependent on the structure of the neuron. The typical neuron consists of the dendrites, cell body, axon (including the axon hillock), and presynaptic terminal.

Structures of the neuron. Details found in caption.
Figure 1.1. A typical neuron. Dendrites branch out from the cell body, where the nucleus is located. The axon hillock is located where the cell body transitions into the axon. The axon begins at the axon hillock and ends at the presynaptic terminal, which can branch into multiple terminals. ‘Neuron’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

The structure of the neuron affects how it functions


Dendrites

Dendrites, shown here in green, are processes that branch out in a tree-like fashion from the cell body. They are the main target for incoming signals received from other cells. The number of inputs a neuron receives depends on the complexity of the dendritic branching. Dendrites may also have small protrusions along the branches known as spines. Spines, illustrated in the inset box, are the sites of some synaptic contacts. Spines increase the surface area of the dendritic arbor, which may be an important factor in receiving communication.

Illustrated neuron highlighting dendrites and dendritic spines. Details found in caption.
Figure 1.2. Dendrites branch out from the soma. Their function is to receive information from other neurons. Some dendrites have small protrusions called spines that are important for communicating with other neurons. ‘Dendrites’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Cell Body

The cell body, shown here in green and also known as the soma, contains the nucleus and cellular organelles, including endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, ribosomes, and secretory vesicles. The nucleus houses the DNA of the cell, which is the template for all proteins synthesized in the cell. The organelles, illustrated in the inset box, in the soma are responsible for cellular mechanisms like protein synthesis, packaging of molecules, and cellular respiration.

Illustrated neuron highlighting the soma and cellular organelles. Details found in caption.
Figure 1.3. The cell body, or soma, of the neuron contains the nucleus and organelles that are commonly found in other cell types and are important for basic cellular functions. These organelles include mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. ‘Soma’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Axon

The axon, highlighted in green, is usually a long, single process that begins at the axon hillock and extends out from the cell body. The axon hillock is located where the cell body transitions into the axon. Axons can branch in order to communicate with more than one target cell.

Illustrated neuron highlighting the axon hillock and axon. Details found in caption.
Figure 1.4. The axon is a long single projection that begins at the axon hillock, the region between the cell body and the axon. The axon terminates at the presynaptic terminal. ‘Axon’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Action Potential

The axon transmits an electrical signal, called an action potential, from the axon hillock to the presynaptic terminal where the electrical signal will result in a release of chemical neurotransmitters to communicate with the next cell. The action potential is a very brief change in the electrical potential, which is the difference in charge between the inside and outside of the cell. During the action potential, the electrical potential across the membrane moves from a negative value to a positive value and back.

Animation 1.1. The action potential is a brief but significant change in electrical potential across the membrane. The membrane potential will move from a negative, resting membrane potential, shown here as -65 mV, and will rapidly become positive and then rapidly return to rest during an action potential. The action potential moves down the axon beginning at the axon hillock. When it reaches the synaptic terminal, it causes the release of chemical neurotransmitter. ‘Action Potential Propagation’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License. View static image of animation.

Myelin

Many axons are also covered by a myelin sheath, a fatty substance that wraps around portions of the axon and increases action potential speed. There are breaks between the myelin segments called Nodes of Ranvier, and this uncovered region of the membrane regenerates the action potential as it propagates down the axon in a process called saltatory conduction. There is a high concentration of voltage-gated ion channels, which are necessary for the action potential to occur, in the Nodes of Ranvier.

Illustrated neuron highlighting myelin and Nodes of Ranvier. Details in caption.
Figure 1.5. Myelin wraps around and insulates the axon. The spaces between the myelin sheath, where the axon is uncovered, are call the Nodes of Ranvier. ‘Myelin’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Axon Length

The length of an axon is variable depending on the location of the neuron and its function. The axon of a sensory neuron in your big toe needs to travel from your foot up to your spinal cord, whereas an interneuron in your spinal cord may only be a few hundred micrometers in length.

Illustrated human body showing a short axon and a long axon. Details in caption.
Figure 1.6. Axons vary in length. Spinal interneurons, neurons that fully exist within the spinal cord, can have short axons, whereas sensory or motor neurons, which need to reach from the spinal cord to the appropriate body region, for example the toe, have long axons. ‘Axon Length’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Axon Diameter

Axon diameter is also variable and can be used to differentiate different types of neurons. The diameter affects the speed at which the action potential will propagate. The larger the diameter, the faster the signal can travel. Additionally, larger diameter axons tend to have thicker myelin.

Illustrated neuron highlighting different axon diameters and thickness of myelin. Details in caption.
Figure 1.7. The diameter of the axon and the amount of myelination varies. Large diameter axons typically have thicker myelin sheath, which results in fast action potential speed. Small diameter axons may have no myelin present, resulting in slow action potential speed. ‘Axon Diameter’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Presynaptic Terminal

The axon terminates at the presynaptic terminal or terminal bouton. The terminal of the presynaptic cell forms a synapse with another neuron or cell, known as the postsynaptic cell. When the action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, the neuron releases neurotransmitters into the synapse. The neurotransmitters act on the postsynaptic cell. Therefore, neuronal communication requires both an electrical signal (the action potential) and a chemical signal (the neurotransmitter). Most commonly, presynaptic terminals contact dendrites, but terminals can also communicate with cell bodies or even axons. Neurons can also synapse on non-neuronal cells such as muscle cells or glands.

Illustrated neuron highlighting the presynaptic terminal and synapses. Details in caption.
Figure 1.8. The presynaptic terminal forms synaptic contacts with a postsynaptic cell. ‘Presynaptic Terminal’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

The terms presynaptic and postsynaptic are in reference to which neuron is releasing neurotransmitters and which is receiving them. Presynaptic cells release neurotransmitters into the synapse and those neurotransmitters act on the postsynaptic cell.

A presynaptic and postsynaptic cell. Details in caption.
Figure 1.9. The presynaptic cell is the neuron that releases neurotransmitters into the synapse to act upon the postsynaptic cell. ‘Postsynaptic Cell’ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Variations in Structure

Although these typical structural components can be seen in all neurons, the overall structure can vary drastically depending on the location and function of the neuron. Some neurons, called unipolar, have only one branch from the cell body, and the dendrites and axon terminals project from it. Others, called bipolar, have one axonal branch and one dendritic branch. Multipolar neurons can have many processes branching from the cell body. Additionally, each of the projections can take many forms, with different branching characteristics. The common features of cell body, dendrites, and axon, though, are common among all neurons.

Four neuron illustrations showing variations in structure. Details in caption.
Figure 1.10. Neuron structure is variable, but the main components of cell body (shown in black), dendrites (shown in brown), and axon (shown in blue) are common among all neurons. ‘Neuron Types‘ by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share-Alike (CC-BY-NC-SA) 4.0 International License.

Key Takeaways

  • Each structural component of the neuron has an important function
  • Overall structure of the cell can vary depending on location and function of the neuron

Test Yourself!

Try the quiz more than once to get different questions!

  1. From memory, draw a neuron and identify the following structures: dendrites, soma, axon hillock, axon, myelin, nodes of Ranvier, presynaptic terminal.
  2. Describe functions of each neuronal structure depicted in your illustration.
  3. Predict what would happen to neuron function if myelin was destroyed

Video Lecture

 

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Foundations of Neuroscience Copyright © 2021 by Casey Henley is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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